History and Styles of Japanese Bookbinding
Evolution of Bookbinding in Japan
Japanese bookbinding has a long history distinct from Western traditions. The craft reached Japan via cultural exchange with China and Korea. In China (and Korea), woodblock printing became widespread earlier, so their book formats optimized for printing efficiency. By contrast, in Japan many texts were hand-copied in manuscript form for centuries, allowing a variety of bookbinding styles to emerge depending on a book’s content and purpose. This led to several unique binding methods in Japan.
Early Japanese books were influenced by Chinese models. The handscroll (kansubon) was introduced along with Buddhism and used for sacred texts like sutras. Over time, new formats developed. By the Heian period (794–1185), the accordion-fold book (orihon) and certain glued or “pasted” bindings had been adopted. A significant innovation of the late Heian era was the multisection codex-style binding known as retchōsō, which involved sewing together small, folded sections – an early Japanese approach to a hard-spined book. It is believed that retchōsō originated in China’s Tang Dynasty (7th century) but was not widely used there; it took root in Japan by the 12th century. This style was popularly used for native literature such as narrative tales, Noh plays, and poetry anthologies.
By the Kamakura and Muromachi periods (13th–15th centuries), a stab-sewn binding called fukuro-toji (“pouch binding”) began to appear. This format was introduced from the Korean kingdom of Goryeo, according to tradition. Early examples of pouch-bound books in Japan date to the 12th–13th centuries. After the 14th century, fukuro-toji gradually supplanted most other formats as the dominant method. The rise of commercial woodblock printing in the Edo period (1603–1868) cemented its popularity – by the 17th century, the vast majority of Japanese books were produced with stab binding. Even so, older formats never entirely died out; different binding styles continued to be used for specific genres (for example, scrolls remained standard for formal Buddhist scriptures, and multisection bindings for certain literary works).
Japan’s encounter with Western bookbinding came much later. European missionaries in the late 16th century briefly introduced Western-style bound books (sewn on cords with leather covers), but this had little immediate impact. It was only after the Meiji Restoration (1868) that Western binding and printing were widely adopted in Japan. By the 1880s, Western-style case-bound books had largely replaced traditional bindings for new publications, especially in scientific and technical subjects. Nonetheless, traditional Japanese bindings (wahon) persisted in certain fields (e.g. religious texts and classic literature) and continue to be produced today for their cultural and aesthetic value.
Traditional Japanese Bookbinding Styles
Over the centuries, Japanese artisans developed five primary binding styles, each suited to different uses:
Scrolls (kansusō) – The oldest format, consisting of sheets pasted end-to-end and wound around a wooden dowel. Scrolls were prestigious and used for official, religious, or ceremonial texts (notably Buddhist sutras). They allow a continuous display of text or images, which made them ideal for illustrated narratives or maps, though they are cumbersome to navigate and read sequentially.
Accordion-Fold Books (orihon) – A continuous strip of paper folded back and forth like an accordion. This format likely evolved from readers folding scrolls for convenience. Accordion books can be opened flat or expanded to view multiple pages at once. They were commonly used for things like travel guides, reference manuals, genealogies, and picture collections, as they combine the scroll’s panoramic display with easier handling.
Pasted-Leaves Binding (detchōsō, a.k.a. “butterfly” binding) – An early book format where folded sheets are stacked and glued near the spine, alternating with their open edges. In this style, each “leaf” is a folded sheet pasted to its neighbor at the inner edge, which causes pages to open in a butterfly-like manner. This method appeared in the Nara-Heian period and is considered one of the most ancient book forms. However, because it relies on adhesive, over centuries the glue would fail and the book block would come apart. As a result, detchōsō bindings largely fell out of use by the 13th century in Japan. (The term kochōsō or “butterfly book” is sometimes confusingly used for either this style or for multisection books in historical texts.)
Multisection Binding (retchōsō or tetchōsō) – A codex-like method (also called Yamato-toji, “Japanese binding”) in which several folded sheets are nested together into small sections (signatures) that are sewn through their center folds and then joined to form a thicker book. Essentially, it resembles Western binding in structure: the folded signatures are sewn one to another, producing a spine made of the folds. The retsujōsō book usually has stiff covers on front and back, but the spine is often left uncovered, exposing the sewing threads. This allows the book to open completely flat on a table, which is a notable advantage for readability. Multisection binding in Japan dates back to the 12th century. It was widely used in the Heian through Muromachi periods for works of native literature – for example, classic tales (monogatari), poetry collections, and Noh drama texts were commonly bound in this style. However, it was not typically used for Chinese-imported texts or Buddhist scriptures in Japan. Instead, it was a distinctly Japanese format (hence the nickname “Yamato binding”) reserved for indigenous genres. Over time, especially in the Edo period, multisection binding was overshadowed by the simpler stab binding for mass-produced books. But it survived in certain contexts and has seen modern revival among bookbinders for its elegance and flat-opening quality.
Stitched Pouch Binding (fukuro-toji) – This is the iconic Japanese stab binding method most often associated with traditional Japanese books. In fukuro-toji, each page is a sheet of washi paper printed or written on one side only, then folded in half with the blank side inward, forming a “pouch” (the two halves together). A stack of such folded leaves is assembled with their open edges at the spine side. Front and back covers (typically thicker paper or thin cardstock) are added. The book is then stitched along the right-hand edge (spine), sewing through the stack about a centimeter or so from the edge. The stitching is done through punched holes, and no glue is used – the thread alone holds the book together. The result is a slim, soft-covered book with an attractive stitched spine. A standard fukuro-toji book has four binding holes, hence the common term yotsume-toji (“four-eye binding”) for the classic sewing pattern. Taller books might use five holes, and historically some Chinese books used six or more holes for additional support.
Fukuro-toji became the most prevalent binding style by the Edo period, used for everything from literature and poetry to play scripts and popular fiction. It was efficient for the burgeoning publishing industry because printers could print on only one side of the sheet, then fold and compile the pages easily. (Using folded leaves also hid the printed blank sides inside, which economized on content space and suited the translucent washi paper.) This style was introduced from China/Korea and took off after the 14th century, eventually eclipsing earlier methods for most uses. Notably, fukuro-toji was adopted not just for Japanese works but even for Chinese and Korean texts imported to Japan – imported printed sheets would often be bound locally in the Japanese stab-binding manner. By the 17th–19th centuries, literally millions of volumes were bound in this way. Despite the dominance of Western bindings in modern times, stab-bound books are still made today for artistic projects and reproductions of Edo-period texts.
(Aside from these main five styles, there were other less common or more specialized bindings in Japan. For instance, ledgers and account books often used a “ledger binding” (daifuku-chō) with heavy cord ties for durability. Another is tan’yōsō, a single-leaf binding similar to stab binding but using unfolded sheets. There was also musubi-toji, a simple knot binding through two holes near the spine, and hōkai-sō, a wrapped-back binding using one long cover that wraps around the spine. However, these are beyond the scope of our overview.)
Four-Hole Stab Binding (Yotsume Toji)
The yotsume-toji (“four eyes binding”) is the standard stitching pattern for Japanese stab-bound books. This binding is a subset of fukuro-toji described above. In yotsume-toji, four holes are punched near the spine edge of the assembled book block (one near each end and two evenly spaced in between), and the binder sews a decorative loop pattern through these holes to secure the covers and pages. The sewing is typically done with a single continuous thread, often silk or cotton, and creates the classic visible cord pattern on the book’s spine. The result is both functional and decorative – the stitches can form straight lines or slightly angled corner loops, giving a subtle elegance to the binding.
Structurally, yotsume-toji differs greatly from Western bindings. Instead of sewing along the inner folds of signatures, the stitching in yotsume-toji goes through the stack of pages near the outer edge. Each page is a double-leaf (folded sheet), so the needle actually passes through four layers of paper at each hole (two leaves plus front and back cover). Because the folds are at the fore-edge, the spine edge is the rough, open ends of the paper, all firmly held by the stitching. Cloth or leather reinforcements can be added at the corners of the covers to prevent the thread from tearing the paper (historic Japanese books often have small triangular cloth patches on the cover corners for this reason). A title slip (daisen) is usually pasted on the upper left of the front cover, identifying the book’s title.
Yotsume-toji was prized for its simplicity and utility. The basic four-hole stitch is strong enough for slim to medium books, and it can be executed quickly without adhesive. Many variations evolved to strengthen or embellish the binding: for example, the Kangxi (noble) pattern adds loops at the corners, the asa-no-ha (hemp leaf) pattern weaves an extra criss-cross between holes, and the kikkō (tortoise shell) pattern creates a complex hexagonal design. These variants use additional holes or angled stitching but build on the four-hole base. In everyday Edo-period books, however, the plain four-hole yotsume-toji was most common.
One limitation of yotsume-toji (and stab bindings generally) is that the book does not open flat. Because the spine is tightly sewn, the pages can only open about 90 degrees, not a full 180-degree spread, especially when thicker paper is used. Traditional washi paper is thin and flexible, which mitigated this issue – readers would gently press the book open, and the soft paper would curve without cracking. In fact, attempts to use Western-style heavy paper or too many pages in a stab binding often result in a book that is awkward to open or easily damaged. Japanese books were therefore kept relatively slim, and multiple-volume series were common instead of one thick volume. Additionally, they were read by holding the book in the left hand and opening pages from right to left (opposite of Western books), which worked well given the format.
Historically, yotsume-toji became widespread in the Edo period’s woodblock-printed books. Publishers adopted this binding for everything from literary novels to theater programs to scholarly texts. The folded-page technique meant that only one side of each sheet was printed, a practice that was well-suited to woodblock printing (which prints on one side at a time). The resulting “pouch” pages also had the benefit of doubling the paper thickness, making the pages more opaque and durable for reading. Over the Edo period, countless books in Japan were made with yotsume-toji binding; it was the default format for popular reading material.
Today, yotsume-toji remains a popular style for hand-made notebooks, artists’ books, and in bookbinding workshops around the world because it is beginner-friendly yet produces a beautiful, traditional look. Modern bookmakers sometimes adapt the four-hole stab binding to contemporary materials and aesthetics, but the core technique is the same used in Japan for centuries.
Retchōsō (Multi-Section “Yamato” Binding)
The term retchōsō refers to the traditional Japanese multi-section binding – essentially, a codex-style book sewn in separate sections. This style is also called tetchōsō or colloquially “Yamato binding.” It is the closest analog in Japan to a Western sewn book with signatures. In a retchōsō book, sheets of paper are folded in half and grouped into small booklets (usually 3–5 sheets per section). These folded sections are then stacked together, aligning their folded spines, and sewn through the fold with thread to connect all the sections in sequence. The stitching is often done in a straight stitch or chain stitch across the spine folds, linking the sections one after another (much like a simple form of Western pamphlet sewing). Once sewn, the book has an internal spine of thread; typically, covers of stiff paper or light card are then attached as the outermost sections, and sometimes additional spine reinforcement is added, though often the spine was left uncovered in historical examples.
One defining feature of retchōsō binding is that, because the sections are sewn at the fold (rather than glued or stabbed at the edge), the book opens flat with very little effort. The pages can lie completely open, making it easy to read across the inner margins. This was particularly useful for manuscripts or texts meant for study. Indeed, surviving examples from the 12th–13th centuries include luxury manuscript editions of The Tale of Genji and imperial poetry collections done in this style – in those, the pages were often beautifully decorated and the ability to open flat enhanced the display of the ornate paper.
Historically, retchōsō appears to have been developed in Japan by the 12th century (Kamakura period). Some scholars long thought it was an exclusively Japanese invention, hence the name “Yamato-toji,” but modern findings show that similar multi-section sewn books existed in Tang China; a cache of books from the Dunhuang caves included volumes with this type of binding dating to the 7th–9th centuries. It seems the technique traveled to Japan (perhaps via Buddhist texts or scholarly works) and was then adopted and refined locally. Interestingly, while China did not widely embrace this binding method in later centuries, Japan made it one of their own – so much so that early Japanese bibliographers assumed it was a native style.
Uses: Retchōsō-bound books were typically reserved for high-quality manuscripts and native literary works. As noted, monogatari (prose tales), waka poetry anthologies, and Noh play libretti were often bound in this manner during the Heian and Kamakura periods. These genres were culturally prestigious and often produced in limited numbers for aristocratic or scholarly circles. The multisection format was well-suited for such content: it could accommodate longer texts in one volume (unlike stab binding, which might require multiple thin volumes), and it allowed artistic flourishes like decorated endpapers, section dividers, or illuminated paper – elements that benefit from a codex layout. Moreover, retchōsō books, with their open-flat quality, facilitated writing on both sides of the paper in manuscripts (though in practice many were still written on one side and folded, similar to stab-bound pages, resulting in doubled leaves in each section).
A retchōsō book typically had thread stitching visible along the spine. Unlike Western books, there was usually no spine covering or leather back – the threads (often silk) and the folds of sections were exposed, creating a neat visual rhythm down the spine. Because of this exposed spine, such books often had protective cases. It was common to store them in a wrap-around cloth folder or a fitted wooden case called a chitsu for safekeeping, especially if the volume was part of a multi-volume set. This is true for most traditional Japanese books, but particularly for valuable retchōsō-bound volumes which were seen as deluxe items.
By the Edo period, the simpler fukuro-toji largely took over for mass-market publishing, so retchōsō was used less frequently in new publications. However, it did not vanish. Some late Edo bibliophiles still compiled special editions in multisection style, and the term Yamato-toji continued to be associated with an old-fashioned, elegant book format. In the modern era, retchōsō has experienced a revival among craft bookbinders and conservationists. Its complex sewn structure is time-consuming to execute, but the result is durable and user-friendly. Artists and conservators appreciate that it marries Eastern and Western techniques: a retchōsō book behaves much like a Western case-bound book but is made with Japanese materials and sensibilities.
In summary, retchōsō represents the Japanese approach to the multi-signature codex. It showcases how Japanese bookbinding was not limited to one style but included a spectrum from the rolled scroll to the sewn codex, each chosen for its suitability to the text at hand. Retchōsō books, though less common than stab bindings, highlight the Japanese emphasis on flexibility and readability – a well-made retchōsō volume combines the beauty of hand-crafted washi and decorative covers with the practical ease of a flat-opening book.
Comparison to Western Bookbinding
Japanese and Western bookbinding traditions evolved independently and thus have fundamental differences in structure and usage. Here we compare key aspects:
Structure and Sewing: Western books (since the medieval codex) are typically made of folded paper gatherings (signatures) sewn through their folds and often attached to support cords or tapes, which are then anchored into a spine covering. Japanese books, in contrast, especially the common fukuro-toji type, did not sew along the fold of the paper at all. In a stab-bound Japanese book, the folded edge of each leaf is at the fore-edge, and the sewing is done along the opposite edge (the “spine” side) going through the stack of pages. This means Western books have an internal spine (the folded edges glued or sewn together and usually covered by leather or cloth), whereas Japanese stab-bound books have an external spine of thread and the pages’ spine edges are exposed. The multisection retchōsō style is an exception: it closely resembles Western binding by sewing along the folds of sections and creating a true spine. It’s often noted that retchōsō bindings are “the closest to standard Western books” in the East Asian repertoire.
Materials: Traditional Japanese books are made with washi, a durable but lightweight handmade paper from mulberry bark (kōzo) or other plant fibers. Washi is thin, flexible, and printed/written usually on one side only (at least in stab-bound books). Western books historically used heavier paper or parchment, written on both sides. The thinness of washi allowed Japanese books to have many pages without becoming too bulky, and it was strong enough to hold up to stitching despite being pierced near the edge. Western papers, being stiffer, do not accommodate stab-sewing well – if one tries a four-hole stab binding on thick Western paper, the pages won’t flex open easily and the book can be very awkward to use. This is why Western books developed the inner-hinged binding approach, to allow each leaf to flex at the spine. Japanese fukuro-toji gets around the stiffness problem by the fact that each page is a loose fold; even though it’s sewn at one edge, the page can bend a bit at the open ends. But still, Western codices generally open wider than Japanese stab-bound books, due to differences in paper and sewing.
Opening and Use: A Western codex opens flat or nearly flat when properly bound (especially with techniques like rounded spines, flexible sewing, or if it’s a lay-flat binding). Many Western books can be read hands-free on a table because the pages stay open. Traditional Japanese stab bindings do not open flat – they have a semi-rigid spine of thread that acts almost like a clamp on the page edges, so the reader must hold the book open at a narrower angle. This was acceptable in Japanese use, partly because books were smaller in format and usually read by hand (not laid on a desk). Retchōsō multi-section books, on the other hand, behave more like Western books and can open flat due to the sectional sewing. Notably, Japanese books were read right-to-left, with the spine on the right side, opposite of Western books. This influenced the reader’s experience: flipping pages “backwards” from a Western perspective. Storage was also different – Japanese books, having soft or fragile covers, were stored flat or in wrap-around boxes (chitsu), not upright on shelves. A Western leather-bound volume could stand vertically and display its title on a spine; a stitched Japanese book would slump and its open spine offers no surface for title lettering (instead, titles were on slips on the cover).
Covers and Aesthetics: In Western binding, especially since the Renaissance, books often have hard covers (wooden boards or thick card) covered in leather or cloth, and the binding thread is hidden inside the spine or under endpapers. Japanese books usually have soft covers, often just a couple of sheets of paper pasted together or a thin card, sometimes with a printed or stenciled design. The thread in stab bindings is visible on the outside, forming part of the decoration. This led to a different aesthetic: Western books emphasize the spine (gilded titles, raised bands, etc.) whereas Japanese books emphasize the cover paper’s design and the stitching pattern. Japanese covers were frequently made of beautifully decorated washi – dyed colors, woodblock-printed patterns, or sprinkled with mica – giving each volume visual appeal. They were then tied with string or stored in a fabric wrapper for protection, rather than displayed spine-out. It’s a distinctly portfolio-like approach compared to Western book design.
Longevity and Repair: Each tradition has advantages. Japanese stab bindings are relatively easy to disassemble and reassemble – one can cut the threads, repair or replace sheets, and re-sew the book without extremely specialized tools. There is no spine adhesive to worry about (in stab bindings), and the primary materials (paper and thread) age gracefully if kept dry. On the other hand, the exposed edges of Japanese books are vulnerable to wear; the outer pages can tear at the sewing stations, and because they cannot stand on a shelf, they often sat in piles (which can crush them) or in tight boxes. Western bindings, with sturdy covers, better protect the textblock during handling and storage, but their complex structure (glue, spine lining, etc.) can be harder to repair once damaged, and leather can deteriorate (red rot) whereas Japanese paper covers, while delicate, don’t rot in the same way.
Cross Influences: In the 19th century, as Japan opened to the West, there was mutual fascination with book forms. Western book collectors admired the color woodblock-printed Japanese books (for their content and visuals), but often found the stab binding format less practical. Some Western publishers in the early 20th century even issued special editions or art books in “Japanese style” binding as an exotic touch. For example, artists’ books or fine press editions occasionally use stab binding to showcase a Japonisme influence. However, as noted, they must use thin papers or a concertina inner structure to compensate, since heavy Western paper isn’t suited to stab sewing. Conversely, Japan’s rapid Westernization in the Meiji era meant Western case binding became the norm for most new Japanese books by 1900. Today, both traditions thrive in parallel: publishers use Western binding for almost all commercial books in Japan, but traditional Japanese bindings are kept alive by artisans, for limited edition works, conservation of old texts, and hobby crafters around the world who learn stab binding for its beauty and simplicity.
In summary, Japanese bookbinding offers a fascinating counterpoint to Western methods. Japanese books prioritize simplicity of construction, flexibility of formats for different content, and the use of exquisite paper – reflecting a culture where the book was often an art object as much as a reading tool. Western binding developed toward durability, spine display, and maximal use of both sides of the page, suiting different practical needs. Understanding both illuminates how physical format can influence the experience and even the prestige of the written word. Japanese binding styles like yotsume-toji and retchōsō continue to enchant bibliophiles and students of book arts, bridging functional design with elegant craftsmanship from centuries past.
